Brick kilns and air pollution: Governance crisis, labour exploitation, missed industrial transition

Air pollution in Dhaka has reached an alarming level, and open sky brick kilns remain one of its most persistent and preventable sources. Every dry season, the sky over the city becomes dense with smoke and fine dust, much of it emitted from traditional brickfields operating with outdated and highly polluting technologies.

Despite years of government commitments, policy reforms, and enforcement drives, the problem continues almost unchanged. This raises a critical question: is the failure technical, or is it rooted in deeper governance and economic realities?

Bangladesh has an estimated 7,000 to 8,000 brick kilns, supplying over 20 to 25 billion bricks annually to meet the demands of rapid urbanization and infrastructure growth. According to reports from the Department of Environment (DoE), the World Bank, and research published in academic platforms such as PubMed Central (PMC), the sector has a yearly turnover of around Tk 9,000 to 12,000 crore, making it economically significant. However, behind this economic contribution lies a largely informal and environmentally damaging industry.

A critical dimension often overlooked is labour. The brick kiln sector employs an estimated 1 to 1.5 million workers during peak season, as highlighted in studies by the International Labour Organization (ILO), Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS), and World Bank labour assessments. A significant portion of this workforce includes women and children, many of whom migrate from rural areas affected by poverty, river erosion, and climate related disasters.

Men are typically engaged in heavy labour such as soil digging, brick moulding, and kiln operation, while women are involved in carrying raw and finished bricks under physically demanding conditions. Wage disparities are evident. Male workers generally earn between Tk 400 to 700 per day, while women often receive Tk 300 to 500 for similar levels of effort, according to labour studies conducted by ILO and national research organizations. Many workers are paid on a piece rate basis, increasing income insecurity. In some cases, advance based payment systems create dependency, raising concerns about forms of bonded labour, as documented in ILO and human rights reports.

Working conditions are highly unsafe. Labourers are exposed to extreme heat, toxic smoke, and dust without protective equipment. According to ILO, WHO, and occupational health studies, workers face high risks of respiratory diseases, skin disorders, and long term health complications. Child labour, though restricted by law, has been reported in several studies, particularly in informal kiln operations.

From an environmental perspective, the damage is severe. Traditional kilns burn coal, wood, rubber, and other low quality fuels in open conditions, releasing particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and heavy metals. According to the Department of Environment and World Bank air quality assessments, brick kilns contribute up to 50 to 60 percent of Dhaka’s air pollution during peak dry months. The World Health Organization (WHO) has consistently linked such pollution to increased rates of respiratory illness, cardiovascular disease, and premature mortality.

The government of Bangladesh has taken multiple initiatives over the years. The Brick Manufacturing and Brick Kilns Establishment Control Act has been revised several times to regulate the sector. According to DoE and government policy documents, cleaner technologies such as zigzag kilns, hybrid Hoffman kilns, and tunnel kilns have been promoted. Development partners including the World Bank have supported programs encouraging the adoption of zigzag technology.

Some progress is visible. Reports from the World Bank and DoE suggest that approximately 2,000 to 2,500 kilns have adopted improved technologies. Private sector investments in hybrid Hoffman and tunnel kilns have also emerged, though still limited in number. However, the majority of kilns continue to operate using traditional methods.

A critical analysis suggests that the failure lies in weak enforcement and governance gaps. While laws exist, implementation remains inconsistent. According to studies by Transparency International Bangladesh (TIB) and environmental governance assessments, local political influence, corruption, and limited monitoring capacity allow illegal kilns to continue operating, often in restricted areas.

Economic barriers also play a major role. Modern kiln technologies require significant initial investment, which small operators cannot easily afford. Access to finance remains limited, as highlighted in World Bank and development partner reports. At the same time, strong demand for bricks, driven by rapid urbanization, discourages structural change.

International experiences provide clear lessons. China has transformed its brick sector through strict regulation, technological modernisation, and promotion of alternative materials, as documented in World Bank and international industrial studies. European countries such as Germany and the Netherlands have fully industrialized brick production using energy efficient tunnel kilns under strict environmental standards.

Japan and South Korea have developed highly regulated and technologically advanced systems that prioritise both environmental compliance and worker safety, according to OECD and industrial policy research. India has made significant progress by converting thousands of traditional kilns into zigzag systems, supported by government policy and international development programs. Vietnam has reduced dependence on fired clay bricks by promoting non fired alternatives, as reported by UN Habitat and regional development studies.

These examples show that transformation is possible when regulation is combined with enforcement, financial support, and industrial planning.
In Bangladesh, however, the brick sector remains trapped in a cycle of low cost production, environmental degradation, and labour exploitation. The cost of inaction is substantial. According to World Bank and WHO estimates, air pollution leads to increased healthcare costs, reduced productivity, and long term economic losses. Agricultural land is also degraded due to topsoil extraction and pollution, as highlighted in environmental studies.

Addressing this crisis requires a comprehensive approach. Strong enforcement of environmental and labour laws is essential. Financial mechanisms such as subsidized loans and incentives can support technological transition. Labour protections must be strengthened to ensure fair wages, safety, and dignity for workers.

Equally important is the promotion of alternative building materials to reduce dependence on traditional bricks. Policy support for sustainable construction, along with improved urban planning, can ease pressure on the sector.

The brick industry remains vital for Bangladesh’s development. However, its current structure is environmentally unsustainable and socially unjust. The continued operation of open sky brick kilns reflects not just a technological gap, but a deeper governance challenge.
Dhaka’s air pollution crisis is therefore more than an environmental issue. It is a test of policy implementation, institutional accountability, and social responsibility. Without decisive and coordinated action, the cost will continue to be borne by the most vulnerable workers, urban residents, and future generations

* The author is a freelance writer